Fortier, T M; Luiten, A N; Margolis, H S (2026) Optical atomic clocks: defining the future of time and frequency metrology. Optica, 13 (1). pp. 143-163. ISSN 2334-2536

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Abstract

Optical atomic clocks based on laser-cooled trapped ions and atoms have advanced rapidly over the past decade. With fractional frequency uncertainties now surpassing 10 −18 , they are some of the most precise measurement tools ever built. Yet researchers are still pursuing new avenues of research to explore the fundamental limits to their stability, accuracy, and reproducibility. In this mini-review, we provide a survey of the current state of the art by describing the fundamental principles and techniques that underpin this progress, the architectures used to realize optical clocks, and the supporting laser technologies that are essential to their operation. We also examine the progress that has been made toward a redefinition of the second in the International System of Units and the inclusion of optical clocks into the global time and frequency metrology infrastructure. Finally, we discuss emerging applications of optical clocks and look at the prospects for making their precision more readily accessible to end users.

Item Type:	Article
Subjects:	Time and Frequency > Optical Frequency Standards and Metrology
Divisions:	Time & Frequency
Identification number/DOI:	10.1364/OPTICA.575770
Last Modified:	29 Jul 2026 08:33
URI:	https://eprintspublications.npl.co.uk/id/eprint/10489